A detailed Summary of Cold Mountain Essay

I am coming home one way or another, and I do not know how things might stand between us. I first thought to tell in this letter what I have done and seen so that you might judge me before I return. But I decided it would need a page as broad as the blue sky to write that tale, and I have not the will or the energy.1" This passage somes up the whole story in three sentences, yet only hints at the complexity of Inman's experiences and situation. Throughout the story we see the compromises Inman must make to survive. And as each day progresses the manner by which the various characters interact changes. This poses the question, how does the Civil War affect the social relationships between Southerners? In order to answer this question thoroughly, three main components must be looked at; the economic effects of the Civil War for the South, how the Civil War brakes down families, and how the traditional social system changes.
In a true deferential society (such as antebellum America) there only can be two social and economic classes, the rich, and the poor. But once we enter the Civil War this system of wealth and authority brakes down. The ease by which the rich make profits collapses, whether by trade embargoes inhi. The misconception remains that all southerners owned slaves including immigrants, yet it has been reported that fewer than five percent of their kind owned slaves! Thus the reason for their entrance to the Confederate army was not to protect the South's "peculiar institution." Rather two elements brought about the enlisting of these men, first, they felt morally obligated that they must protect their country and home and second, all men were expected to enlist, for this war was about rights and as Thomas Jefferson notes, "not to defend ones rights when called upon is treason." After the departure of the men, women had to deal with an entirely new threat. Without the masculine presence, Federal and Confederate troops regularly looted and wreaked these women's homes, taking food and any other good of value. Of course in Cold Mountain this is precisely what happen to Sara, left alone after her husband, John leaves to fight for the Confederacy she attempts to maintain their large garden/small farm to run and take care of a new born. A few days after Inman volunteers to help her out, a group of three Federals storm her humble home. After finding nothing of value they inquire about her "hidden money," but conclude the truth, she has none. Unhappy with no loot they take her hog. She replies, "you take it and your might as well knock both of us in the head, and kill us now, for it will all come out the same,2" basically saying that the hog is all she has left. As for the men, you basically had two options, you could fight for either side until you won the war, or you could desert. Either way you would be on fatal grounds. Desertion was the chose for main Confederate men, so the Home guards were formed, led by Teague to search for the deserter and usually kill them by firing squad or hanging. This dismal future for men brought about the war song, "The fear of the grave is removed forever, when I die I'll live again, my soul will rejoice by the crystal river. When I die I'll live again, hallelujah I'll live aga

Rainy Mountain

Dry grass and sharp rocks scrape our boot bottoms as we tackle the mountain. One foot in front of the other, my companion and I make slow but steady progress towards the top. In mid-age, there’s pride in managing such physical feat, but a breathlessness that wasn’t there a decade ago. About three-fourths of the distance, we stop to photograph hen-and-chicks, yucca and prickly pear, but mostly to catch a second wind. Photos taken and pulse tolerable, we race the last bit to the top. Laughing and once again breathless, we plant our feet at the summit, proud as Chiefs at our command of the land.
In awe, we absorb this view of Oklahoma from the hub of an encircling horizon. Distant mountains similar to our own seem planted in no particular pattern. Rainy Mountain Creek meanders its way below, nearly the only place in sight with trees or shrub. But it is what we see immediately in front of our feet that captures our attention---a circle fashioned of rocks, possibly two feet in diameter. A flat-topped rock is situated in the center to support a small offering, a shiny new quarter. This prayer circle represents a sign of reverence, and nearby, a past visitor has constructed a similar cairn. We stare, our thoughts traveling from surprise to reverential respect for the work of another’s hand and heart. We step around the circles and walk to the far side of the mountaintop.
We are at Rainy Mountain with a purpose in mind. Having read N. Scott Momaday’s, Way to Rainy Mountain, we want to see the site where Kiowa ended their move from Montana into Kansas, and eventually Oklahoma. We have a curiosity about the boarding school built at Rainy Mountain (Tseityaedlta), the ruins of which lie below, visible from our mountain perch. The Kiowa children were brought here, to this campus of 2500 acres, to hurry their adaptation to a new place and to Christian customs, and to help them forget their Kiowa ways. Their braids were clipped, their clothes replaced, their language stifled.
In modern geographical terms, the Kiowa school is at North 34 degrees, 59.837 minutes and West 98 degrees, 50.945 minutes; in range and township terms, it is found just off an east-west stretch of East 1380 where it runs into East 1390, a few miles east of Gotebo. In Kiowa kid description the rez school is in the middle of everywhere, at the end of a dusty dirt road. From brick- and rock-structured dorms, the children could look out windows to see a solid blue sky with not one single cloud to mark the path of the wind. Teachers and headmaster were mistaken to think this barren location would make a child forget to be Kiowa.
From atop Rainy Mountain the wind spreads our hair into horizontal wings; our imaginations fly across the miles and back. From this vantage, we can imagine the Kiowa thirteen-year-old, arms crossed over his bare chest, surveying his earthly domain. Feet planted firmly on flint, his heart and mind could traverse this land to a horizon two days walk away. From Rainy Mountain, his Kiowa reverence for sun could be renewed daily. And in the silence of his reprieve, he could ponder the mysteries of his universe and who he is within this grand circle.
Our view falls upon the ruins of Rainy Mountain School. Closed in 1920, toppled bricks and rock foundations are all that remain. But this place, this perch on top of the mountain, still sits at the hub of the horizon, and the prayer circle tells us that the Kiowa boy remained Kiowa.

Responses to “Who Owns Water?”

Many believe that water is a renewable resource, that once it is used, more can be manufactured, created, manufactured and so on. This is not true. Corporations believe that water is a commodity. In a study by the Environmental Business Journal, the United States alone generated over 100 billion dollars in revenue from water in 2003. The study also states that the industry is growing by 10 percent every year.
However, is water a commodity? In an article by Kathleen O’Hara of the Toronto Star entitled World Views Collide Over Water, she points to dedicated individuals like the Council of Canadians chair, Maude Barlow (she also wrote the book Blue Covenant: the Global Water Crisis and the Coming Battle for the Right of Water). O’Hara points out that “on one side, large corporations with, as Barlow points out, the assistance of most First World governments, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization and even the United Nations, are trying to promote the concept of water as a commodity, like oil, to be owned, sold and traded.” O’Hara also goes on to quote Barlow that these corporations and organizations “have established an elaborate infrastructure to promote the private control of water, and they work in close tandem with one another.”
On the other side of the fence, there are people that Barlow believes that water is “the common heritage of all humans and other species, as well as a public trust that must not be appropriated for personal profit or denied to anyone because of an inability to pay.”
Which side of the fence would you choose? Is water a human right or a commodity to be bought, sold, packaged, marketed, traded and bartered with? With the dwindling fresh water reserves around the world, do you want someone to control that water in order to make a profit or do you believe that it is something that must be guarded, protected and shared. It’s a simple choice, but a relevant one considering the global water crisis that is underway. We all have one thing in common, from the villager in the smallest African communities to the inhabitant of sprawling metropolitan centres; we need water to live. Do we deserve to own water?

WATER RESOURCE CATEGORIES

water resources are divisible into two distinct categories : the surface-water resources & the ground-water resources. Each of these categories is a part of the earth's water circulatory system,called the hydrologic cycle, & is ultimately derived from precipitation,which is rainfall plus snow. They are interdependent & frequently the loss of one is the gain of the other. The brief description of the run-off cycle,which is a part of the hydrologic cycle,will help us to understand the origin & the interdependence of these two categories of water resources.
The precipitation that falls upon land & is the ultimate source for both the categories of water resources is dispersed in several ways. A sizeable portion is intercepted by the vegetal cover or temporarily detained in surface depressions.Most of it is later lost through evaporation. When the available interception or the depression storage are completely exhausted & when the rainfall intensity at the soil surface exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soils, the overland flow begins.Once the overland flow reaches a stream channel, it is called surface run-off, which together with other components of flow, forms the total run-off.
Part of the water that infiltrates into the surface soil may continue to move laterally at shallow depth as interflow owing to the presence of relatively impervious lenses just below the soil surface & may eventually reach the stream channel when it is called the sub-surface runoff. A part of the sub-surface run-off may enter the stream promptly, whereas the remaining part may take a long time before joining the stream flow.
A second part of the precipitation which infiltrates is lost through evapo-transpiration via plant roots & thermal gradients just below the soil surface. A third part may remain above the water table in the zone of unsaturated flow.A fourth remaining part percolates deeply into the ground-water.Part of this ground-water may eventually reach the stream channel & become the base flow of the stream. This portion is termed ground-water run-off or ground-water flow.
Apart from infiltrated rain-water, the seepage from canals,ponds,tanks,lakes,irrigated fields,etc.is also dispersed & accounted for in the same manner.
The total run-off in the stream channel includes the snow-melt, the surface run-off the sub-surface run-off, the ground-water run-off & the channel precipitation, i.e. the precipitation falling directly on the water surface of streams,lakes,etc. It constitutes what is known as the surface-water resources. The portion of the precipitation which, after infiltration,reaches the ground-water-table, together with the contribution made to ground water from a neighbouring basin, influent rivers,natural lakes,ponds,artificial storage reservoirs,canals,irrigation,& constitutes the ground-water resources.That quantity of water in the ground-water reservoir, which is not annually replenishable, is not taken into account, as it is a sort of dead storage which cannot be used on a continuing basis from year to year.
The above phase of the run-off cycle pinpoints the inflow components for the surface-as well as for the ground-water resources. It has to be appreciated that there is always a balance between the inflow factors making up water resources of a region, whether surface or ground, & the outflow components.The surface water resource of a given basin in excess of the withdrawal use is accounted for on the outflow side by one or more of the following factors:(i)Stream outflow from the basin;(ii)loss through evaporation;and(iii)the influent recharge to the ground water.Similarly, the unutilised ground-water resource of a basin is accounted for by the following outflow factors:(i)Evapo-transpiration from the ground-water-table;(ii)outflow to the neighbouring ground-water basin;(iii)the effluent discharge to the streams;and(iv)the addition to the ground-water storage.
The interrelationship between the surface-water & the ground-water resources is evident from the above analysis.The surface-water resources contribute to the ground-water recharge in various ways: (i)by influent recharge from the streams;(ii)by seepage from natural lakes,ponds,etc;(iii)seepage from artificial storage reservoirs,canal systems,etc, & (iv)return flow from irrigation. These factors presently contribute to about 25 percent of the country's total ground-water resources.
On the other hand, the bulk of the base-flow in the rivers, which represents the sustained fair-weather run-off is contributed by the ground-water resources. This contribution,presently, is roughly assessed at about 25 percent of the total surface-water resources of the country

meaning of natural resources

A natural resource is a material that comes from the Earth and in its raw or "natural" state is of value for one reason or another. A natural resource is not man made and is already on the Earth. Some examples of natural resources would be oil, timber, and water, as well as a variety of minerals, metals and ores like salt, coal, and metals like gold, iron, aluminum. Water in a high lake is a natural resource. Even living things and materials like grasslands, forests, herds of animals, flocks of birds, and schools of fish can be considered natural resources. And if you guessed that wind and sunlight are natural resources, you'd be correct.
If you want to go with the definition of the way the United States Geological Survey, go for it. The USGS suggests that our nation's natural resources include minerals, energy, land, water and living things (biota). Natural resources are the things that Earth provides us that we can use, but which must be managed to maintain their viability. A general divisor of the natural resources is into renewable and non-renewable forms. The term natural resources probably originated with E.F. Schumacher as he used it in his book Small is Beautiful, which came out in 1973. A link can be found below to allow the curious investigator to learn more.

River Rafting/White Water Rafting

River Rafting is journeying on torrential river on an inflatable rubber boat. A River Raft is the most enjoyable way of checking one's guts. Both amateur and experienced rafters equally enjoy it. A river trip also provides the opportunity for geological surveys and fishing.

In a country like Nepal, blessed by Himalayan rivers, a river trip is one of the best ways to explore a typical cross section of the country's natural as well as ethno-cultural heritage. The river is regarded as a form of goddess and is used for the purpose of various religious rituals under both Hinduism and Buddhism. A variety of cultural activities can be witnessed being performed along the river. The adjoining slopes of the river often harbor dense vegetation and interesting wildlife.

About of Nepal

My small country Nepal attributing an angelic beauty is situated between two large countries called china in north and India in three sides.According to the census report of 2001 A.D the population of country Nepal is 2,31,51,423 and its area is 1,47,181.The population density of Nepal is 154 people in per sq.km but the valley and the plains are densely populated.
Nepal is a agro based country.Eighty percent of the people of Nepal are depend upon the agriculture .Although the people of various social group,various religions,they really practice "unity in diversity".The follower of one religion respect the follower of the another religion.Most of the people of the Nepal follow the Hindu religion,and rest of the people follow the religion like Muslim,Christian,Buddha etc.
Nepal is popular for the angelic beauties ,unique wonders and gifts in the world,although it is a land locked country.It is famous for river lakes and mountain.Tourist come here for relaxation in their holiday.The highest mountain peak Mount Everest in the world,fascinates many foreign tourist everyday.Through tourism we can earn foreign money which can be invest in development project.Nepal is rich in water resources it is the second richest country in water in the world.Many rivers flow from the mountain and it passes through the terai.Many brooks and stream serves the people in many ways.They are advantageous for irrigation,transportation,rafting,running hydroelectricity projects and so on.
It is said that "Hario Ban Nepal Ko Dhan".In fact we can get many advantages from the forest.Our country Nepal seems to be beautiful because of the green forest,but nowadays forest is being destroyed in many ways .But also many awareness program are conducted.National parks and wild-life reserves preserve many wild animals .Many tourist come here to watch them.
Nepal is a developing country .About 50%of the Nepalese people are literate .Many school and colleges have been running all over the country .Due to high percent of poverty Nepal many children do not go to school .
I feel proud to be the citizen of Nepal like country.We Nepali people respect each other.We are co-operative .I do feel most of the people love the nation.We feel the mother and mother lands are same .I do hope that our country Nepal will be best and famous country in the world.

Forests

25.4% of Nepal's land area, or about 36,360 km2 (14,039 sq mi) is covered with forest according to FAO figures from 2005. FAO estimates that around 9.6% of Nepal's forest cover consists of primary forest which is relatively intact. About 12.1% Nepal's forest is classified as protected while about 21.4% is conserved according to FAO. About 5.1% Nepal's forests are classified as production forest. Between 2000-2005, Nepal lost about 2,640 km2 (1,019 sq mi) of forest. Nepal's 2000-2005 total deforestation rate was about 1.4% per year meaning it lost an average of 530 km2 (205 sq mi) of forest annually. Nepal's total deforestation rate from 1990-2000 was 920 km2 (355 sq mi) or 2.1% per year. The 2000-2005 true deforestation rate in Nepal, defined as the loss of primary forest, is -0.4% or 70 km2 (27 sq mi) per year.
Deforestation is driven by multiple processes. In the hills, conversion of forests to agricultural land—even on steep hillsides via terracing—is historically important, but has lessened in recent decades due to a shortage of remaining suitable terrain in the hills while mosquito suppression having opened formerly malarial land for settlement in the Terai. As a result, forest land in the Terai is being cleared by settlers.
In the hills, greater contemporary impacts involve degradation of forests rather than outright clearing. Degradation is caused by harvesting firewood, and to a lesser extent wood for traditional architecture. These harvests are often carried to unsustainable levels. Trees are also severely damaged by intensive harvesting of leaves as fodder, especially in the driest months preceding the summer monsoon. Households typically keep at least one cow or buffalo for milk production and may also keep oxen for agricultural labor. In addition goats are herded as the main source of meat that is culturally acceptable to upper-caste Hindus.
FAO Forestry Department Nepal Country Page
Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation Nepal
Forestry Information in Nepal

River system

Nepal has three categories of rivers. The largest river systems—from east to west Koshi, Gandaki/Narayani, Karnali/Goghra and Mahakali -- originate in or beyond the high Himalaya and maintain substantial flows from glacial melt through the hot, droughty spring before the summer monsoon. These largest rivers cross the mountains in deep gorges before emerging onto the plains where they have deposited megafans exceeding 10,000 km2 (3,861 sq mi) area.
the Koshi is also called Sapta Koshi for its seven Himalayan tributaries: Indrawati, Bhote Koshi, Tama Koshi, Dudh Koshi, Liku, Arun, and Tamor. The Arun rises about 150 kilometers inside Tibet.
The Gandaki/Narayani also has seven Himalayan tributaries: Daraudi, Seti Gandaki, Madi, Kali, Marsyandi, Budhi, and Trisuli also called Sapta Gandaki. The Kali Gandaki flows between the 8,000-meter (26,247 ft) Dhaulagiri and Annapurna ranges in the world's deepest valley. After the seven upper tributaries have joined, the river becomes the Narayani inside Nepal, however it is called the Gandak in India.
The Karnali drains western Nepal, with the Bheri and Seti as major tributaries. The upper Karnali rises inside Tibet near sacred Lake Manasarovar and Mount Kailash. The area around these features is the hydrographic nexus of South Asia by containing the sources of the Indus, Sutlej, Ganges tributary Karnali and Yarlung Zangbo/Brahmaputra. It is the center of the universe according to traditional cosmography. The Mahakali or Kali along the Nepal-India border on the west joins the Karnali in India, where the river is known as Goghra or Ghaghara.
Second category rivers rise in the Middle Hills and Mahabharat Range, from east to west the Mechi, Kankai and Kamala south of the Kosi; the Bagmati that drains Kathmandu Valley between the Kosi and Gandaki systems, then the West Rapti and the Babai between the Gandaki and Karnali systems. Without glacial sources, annual flow regimes are more variable although limited flow persists through the dry season.
Third category rivers rise in the outermost Siwalik foothills and are mostly seasonal.
None of these river systems support significant commercial navigation. Instead, deep gorges create obstacles to establishing transport and communication networks and de-fragmenting the economy. Foot-trails are still primary transportation routes in many hill districts.

Nepal's towns, villages, rivers and peaks
[edit] River Management
All three categories are capable of causing serious floods, for example the West Rapti in the second category is called Gorakhpur's Sorrow for its history of urban flooding. Koshi River in the first category caused a major flood in August 2008 in Bihar state, India after breaking through a poorly-maintained embankment just inside Nepal.
Since uplift and erosion are more or less in equilibrium in the Himalaya, rapid uplift is balanced by annual increments of cubic kilometers of sediments washing down from the mountains, then on the plains settling out of suspension on vast alluvial fans or inland deltas over which rivers meander and change course at least every few decades, causing some experts to question whether manmade embankments can contain the problem of flooding. Traditional Mithila culture along the lower Koshi in Nepal and Bihar celebrated the river as the giver of life for its fertile alluvial soil, yet also the taker of life through its catastrophic floods.
Another approach would be to build large dams—in gorges crossing the Mahabharat Range or further upstream—with storage capacities measured in cubic kilometers to capture high flows during the monsoon when there is usually enough rainfall on the plains if not flooding, then releasing water for hydroelectric generation and irrigation especially during the hot and dry pre-monsoon "summer". Nepal would appear to have unusual potential given its average annual 150 cm. of precipitation and thousands of meters of relief between mountains and plains, but there has only been limited development of this potential for example on the Kali Gandaki north of Tansen.
Building dams in Nepal is controversial for several reasons. First, the region is seismically active. Dam failures caused by earthquakes could cause tremendous death and destruction downstream, particularly on the densely populated Gangetic Plain. Second, global warming has led to the formation of glacial lakes dammed by unstable moraines. Sudden failures of these moraines could lead to cascading failures of manmade structures downstream. Third, sedimentation rates in the Himalaya are extremely high, leading to rapid loss of storage capacity as sediments accumulate behind dams. Fourth, there are complicated questions of cross-border equity in how India and Nepal would share costs and benefits that have proven difficult to resolve in the context of frequent acrimony between the two countries.

Environment

The dramatic changes in elevation along this transect result in a variety of biomes, from tropical savannas along the Indian border, to subtropical broadleaf and coniferous forests in the hills, to temperate broadleaf and coniferous forests on the slopes of the Himalaya, to montane grasslands and shrublands, and finally rock and ice at the highest elevations.
This corresponds to the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion.
Subtropical forests dominate the lower elevations of the Hill Region. They form a mosaic running east-west across Nepal, with Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests between 500 and 1,000 metres (1,640 and 3,281 ft) and Himalayan subtropical pine forests between 1,000 and 2,000 metres (3,281 and 6,562 ft). At higher elevations, to 3,000 metres (9,843 ft), are found temperate broadleaf forests: eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests to the east of the Gandaki River and western Himalayan broadleaf forests to the west.
The native forests of the Mountain Region change from east to west as precipitation decreases. They can be broadly classified by their relation to the Gandaki River. From 3,000 to 4,000 metres (9,843 to 13,123 ft) are the eastern and western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests.

Climate

Nepal has tremendous variation in climate. Its latitude is about the same as that of Florida so Terai land up to 500 meters (1,640 ft) has a fully tropical climate, with a subtropical zone extending up to 1,200 meters (3,937 ft) which is the lower limit of frost in winter. Warm temperate climates prevail from 1,200 to 2,400 meters (3,937 to 7,874 ft) where snow occasionally falls. Then there is a cold zone to 3,600 meters (11,811 ft) (treeline), a subarctic or alpine zone to 4,400 meters (14,436 ft) and fully arctic climate above that. Precipitation generally decreases from east to west with increasing distance from the Bay of Bengal, source of the summer monsoon. Eastern Nepal gets about 2,500 mm (98.4 in) annually; the Kathmandu area about 1,400 mm (55.1 in) and western Nepal about 1,000 mm (39.4 in). This pattern is modified by adabiatic effects as rising air masses cool and drop their moisture content on windward slopes, then warm up as they descend so relative humidity drops. Annual precipitation reaches 5,500 mm (216.5 in) on windward slopes in the Annapurna Himalaya beyond a relatively low stretch of the Mahabharat Range. In rainshadows beyond the high mountains, annual precipitation drops as low as 160 mm (6.3 in), creating a cold semi-desert.
Furthermore the year is divided into a wet season from June to September—as summer warmth over Inner Asia creates a low pressure zone that draws in air from the Indian Ocean—and a dry season from October to June as cold temperatures in the vast interior creates a high pressure zone causing dry air to flow outward. April and May are months of intense water stress when cumulative effects of the long dry season are exacerbated by temperatures rising over 40 °C (104 °F). Seasonal drought intensifies in the Siwaliks hills consisting of poorly-consolidated, coarse, highly permeable sediments that do not retain water, so hillsides are covered with tropical scrub forest that is extremely drought-tolerant. In fact outside marsh and riparian zones, most of Nepal's native vegetation is adapted to withstand drought, although less so at higher elevations where cooler temperatures mean less water stress.
The monsoon is preceded by a buildup of thunderstorm activity in the hills that helps farmers irrigate rice seedbeds. Sustained rain on average arrives in early June as rising temperatures over Inner Asia creates a low pressure zone that draws in air from the Indian Ocean, but this can vary up to a month. Significant failure of monsoon rains historically meant drought and famine while above-normal rains still cause flooding and landslides with losses in human lives, farmland and buildings. The monsoon also complicates transportation with roads and trails washing out while unpaved roads and airstrips may become unusable and cloud cover reduces safety margins for aviation. Rains diminish in September and generally end by mid-October, ushering in generally cool, clear, and dry weather, as well as the most relaxed and jovial period in Nepal. By this time, the harvest is completed and people are in a festive mood. The two biggest and most important Hindu festivals-- Dashain and Tihar (Dipawali)--arrive during this period, about one month apart. The postmonsoon season lasts until about December.
After the postmonsoon comes the winter monsoon, a strong northeasterly flow marked by occasional, short rainfalls in the lowlands and plains and snowfalls in the high-altitude areas. Precipitation varies from year to year but increases markedly with elevation. Adequate snowfall in the Himalaya is important for sufficient spring and summer meltwater for irrigation in the lower hills and valleys. At lower elevations, winter rainfall is needed for the success of winter crops such as wheat, barley and vegetables. In this season the Himalaya function

The Mountain Region

The Mountain Region or Parbat abruptly rises into the zone of perpetual snow along the Main Central Thust fault zone. South of this fault system, "hills" do not greatly exceed treeline at about 3,500 metres (11,483 ft). North of it the Himalayas rise as a virtual wall beyond the snowline at 5,000 to 5,500 metres (16,404 to 18,045 ft) to some 90 peaks over 7,000 metres (22,966 ft) and eight exceeding 8,000 metres (26,247 ft) including Mount Everest at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) and Kanchenjunga at 8,598 metres (28,209 ft). Unlike the Mahabharats, the Himalaya are not continuous across Nepal. Instead there are some 20 subranges including the Kanchenjunga massif, Kumbu around Mt. Everest. Langtang north of Kathmandu, Annapurna north of Pokhara and Dhaulagiri further west, then Kanjiroba north of Jumla.
Alpine, often semi-arid valleys—including Humla, Jumla, Dolpo, Mustang, Manang and Khumbu-- cut between himalayan subranges or lie north of them. They are lightly populated by people with Tibetan affinities called Bhotiya or Bhutia including the famous Sherpas in Kumbu valley near Mount Everest. Permanent villages are found as high as 4,500 metres (14,764 ft) with summer encampments even higher. These peoples traditionally grazed yaks, grew cold-tolerant crops such as potatoes, barley and millet, and traded across the mountains, e.g. Tibetan salt for rice from lowlands in Nepal and India. Since the 1950s they have also found work as high altitude porters, guides, cooks and other accessories to tourism and alpinism.
Bhutiya language and culture extend north into Tibet proper, with the international border following the Himalayan crest in eastern Nepal. In central and western Nepal the border mostly follows the watershed between the Ganges and Yarlung Zangbo (Brahmaputra) basins along (about 6,000 metres (19,685 ft)) ranges tens of kilometers north of the highest peaks.

The Hill Region

Situated south of the Mountain Region, the Hill Region (Pahar in Nepali) is mostly between 700 and 4,000 metres (2,297 and 13,123 ft) altitude. This region begins at the Mahabharat Lekh (Lesser Himalaya) where a fault system called the Main Boundary Thrust creates an escarpment 1,000 to 1,500 metres (3,281 to 4,921 ft) high, to a crest between 1,500 and 2,700 metres (4,921 and 8,858 ft). These steep southern slopes are nearly uninhabited, thus an effective buffer between languages and culture in the Terai and Hill regions. Northern slopes are gentler and moderately well populated.
North of this range, Nepali-speaking Hindus and Newar merchants who also speak Newari densely populate valleys suited to rice cultivation as high as 2,000 metres (6,562 ft). The increasingly urbanized Kathmandu and Pokhara valleys fall within this region. Indigenous janajati ethnic groups—natively speaking highly localized Tibeto-Burman languages and dialects—populate hillsides up to about 3,000 metres (9,843 ft). This group includes Magar and Kham Magar west of Pokhara, Gurung south of the Annapurnas, Tamang around the periphery of Kathmandu Valley and Rai and Limbu further east. Beyond microclimates suited to rice cultivation and proximity to water for irrigation, these cultivate maize, millet, barley and potatoes as staple crops. Temperate and subtropical fruits are grown as cash crops. Marijuana is grown and processed into Charas (hashish), but less than was produced before international pressure persuaded the government to outlaw it in 1976. There is increasing reliance on animal husbandry with elevation, using land above 3,000 metres (9,843 ft) for summer grazing and moving herds to lower elevations in winter. Outside the rice-growing lower valleys, hill populations suffer chronic food deficits. Many menfolk find employment in the Terai, in India or overseas to earn cash for imported grain. The Hill region ends dramatically where the main Himalayan Range abruptly rises thousands of meters

The Terai Region

The Terai or Madhesh region begins at the Indian border and includes the northermost part of the flat, intensively farmed Gangetic Plain called the Outer Terai. This is culturally an extension of northern India with Hindi, Awadhi, Bhojpuri and Maithili spoken more than Nepali, however it was annexed to Nepal by conquest and by treaty with the British.
The Outer Terai ends at the first range of foothills called the Siwaliks or Churia. This range has a densely forested skirt of coarse alluvium called the bhabhar along its base. Below the bhabhar, finer, less permeable sediments force groundwater to the surface in a zone of springs and marshes. In Persian, terai refers to wet or marshy ground. Before the use of DDT it was dangerously infested with malaria. Nepal's rulers used it as a defensive frontier called the char kose jhadi (twelve kilometer forest)
Above the bhabhar belt, the Siwaliks rise to about 700 metres (2,297 ft) with peaks as high as 1,000 metres (3,281 ft), steeper on their southern flanks because of faults known as the Main Frontal Thrust. This range is composed of poorly consolidated, coarse sediments that do not retain water or support soil development so there is virtually no agricultural potential. Hillside vegetation is limited to scrub forest and the area functions as a deserted buffer zone allowing the development of distinctive cultures in valleys and hills further north. In several places beyond the Siwaliks there are dun valleys called Inner Terai with productive soil. Among these are Dang and Deukhuri in western Nepal and the Rapti Valley (Chitwan) in central Nepal. Population in these valleys was historically limited by malaria and mainly limited to the Tharu ethnic group that had developed genetic resistance. Around 1960 DDT came into use to suppress mosquitos and the way was open to settlement from the land-poor hills to the detriment of Tharus.

The Land

For a small country, Nepal has tremendous geographic diversity. It rises from less than 100 metres (328 ft) elevation in the tropical Terai—the northern rim of the Gangetic Plain, beyond the perpetual snow line to some 90 peaks over 7,000 metres (22,966 ft) including Earth's highest 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) Mount Everest or Sagarmatha. In addition to the continuum from tropical warmth to cold comparable to polar regions, average annual precipitation varies from as little as 160 millimetres (6.3 in) in the rainshadow north of the Himalaya to as much as 5,500 millimetres (216.5 in) on windward slopes. [1]
Along a south-to-north transect, Nepal can be divided into three belts: Terai, Hill and Mountain Regions. In the other direction it is divided into three major river systems, from east to west: Koshi, Gandaki/Narayani and Karnali (including the Mahakali/Sarda along the western border), all tributaries of the Ganges. The Ganges-Yarlung Zangbo/Brahmaputra watershed largely coincides with the Nepal-Tibet border, however several Ganges tributaries rise inside Tibet

Origins and growth

Main article: Geology of the Himalaya
The Himalayas are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet, and consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock. According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. This is referred to as a fold mountain.
The collision began in the Upper Cretaceous period about 70 million years ago, when the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate, moving at about 15 cm per year, collided with the Eurasian Plate. About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sinking to the floor. The Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision.
The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.

Greater Himalaya

North of the Main Central Thrust, the highest ranges rise abruptly as much as 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) into the realm of perpetual snow and ice. As the Himalayan system becomes wider from east to west, the number of parallel high ranges increases. For example, Kagmara and Kanjiroba ranges both reach well over 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) north of the Dhaulagiri Himalaya in central Nepal.
Montane grasslands and shrublands grow above treeline. The northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows are found in the high elevations of northern Pakistan, Jammu and Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh. To the east, the western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows cover extensive areas along the Tibetan border with Uttarakhand and western Nepal. The eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows grow above the eastern and northeastern subalpine conifer forests, along the Tibetan border with eastern Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Arunachal Pradesh. The shrublands are composed of junipers as well as a wide variety of rhododendrons. They also possess a remarkable variety of wildflowers: Valley of Flowers National Park in the western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows contains hundreds of species. The upper limit of the grasslands increases from west to east, rising from 3,500 metres (11,500 ft) to 5,500 metres (18,000 ft). The grasslands are the summer habitat of the endangered snow leopard .

Geology of the Himalaya

The geology of the Himalaya is a record of the most dramatic and visible creations of modern plate tectonic forces. The Himalayas, which stretch over 2400 km between the Namche Barwa syntaxis in Tibet and the Nanga Parbat syntaxis in Pakistan, are the result of an ongoing orogeny — the result of a collision between two continental tectonic plates. This immense mountain range was formed by huge tectonic forces and sculpted by unceasing denudation processes of weathering and erosion. The Himalaya-Tibet region is virtually the water tower of Asia: it supplies freshwater for more than one-fifth of the world population, and it accounts for a quarter of the global sedimentary budget. Topographically, the belt has many superlatives: the highest rate of uplift (nearly 10 mm/year at Nanga Parbat), the highest relief (8848 m at Mt. Everest Chomolangma), among the highest erosion rates at 2–12 mm/yr^[1], the source of some of the greatest rivers and the highest concentration of glaciers outside of the polar regions. This last feature earned the Himalaya its name, originating from the Sanskrit for "the abode of the snow".

Impact on politics and culture

It should be noted that almost half of the humans and livestock of India live on one-third of the landscape within 500 km of the Himalayan range.(pdf, 3mb)
The Himalayas, due to their large size and expanse, have been a natural barrier to the movement of people for tens of thousands of years. In particular, this has prevented intermingling of people from the Indian subcontinent with people from China and Mongolia, causing significantly different languages and customs between these regions. The Himalayas have also hindered trade routes and prevented military expeditions across its expanse. For instance, Genghis Khan could not expand his empire south of the Himalayas into the subcontinent.

Panorama

Impact on climate

The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau. They prevent frigid, dry Arctic winds blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region. The Himalayas are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the Taklamakan and Gobi.
The mountain ranges also prevent western winter disturbances in Iran from traveling further, resulting in snow in Kashmir and rainfall for parts of Punjab and northern India. Despite being a barrier to the cold, northernly winter winds, the Brahmaputra valley receives part of the frigid winds, thus lowering the temperature in the North East India and Bangladesh.
The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain the greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asia’s largest rivers flow from here, and more than a billion people’s livelihoods depend on them. To complicate matters, temperatures are rising more rapidly here than the global average. In Nepal, the temperature has risen 0.6 degree C over the last decade, whereas the global warming has been around 0.7 degree C over the last hundred years.[6]

Lakes

The Himalaya region is dotted with hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude. The largest lake is the Pangong Tso, which is spread across the border between India and China. It is situated at an altitude of 4,600 m, and is 8 km wide and nearly 134 km long. A notable high (but not the highest) lake is the Gurudogmar in North Sikkim, at an altitude of 5,148 m (17,100 ft) (altitude source: SRTM). Other major lakes include the Tsongmo lake, near the Indo-China border in Sikkim, and Tilicho lake in Nepal in the Annapurna massif, a large lake in an area that was closed to tourists until recently.
The mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres. For more information about these, see here.

Trans-Himalaya

The watershed between rivers flowing south into the Ganges or Indus and rivers flowing north into the Brahmaputra or mainstem Indus that flow around the ends of the entire range often follows somewhat lower, less rugged mountains tens of kilometers north of the highest ranges. South-flowing rivers form valleys in this region, often semi-arid due to rainshadow effects. These valleys hold some of the highest permanent villages on earth.

Greater Himalaya

North of the Main Central Thrust, the highest ranges rise abruptly as much as 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) into the realm of perpetual snow and ice. As the Himalayan system becomes wider from east to west, the number of parallel high ranges increases. For example, Kagmara and Kanjiroba ranges both reach well over 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) north of the Dhaulagiri Himalaya in central Nepal.

Montane grasslands and shrublands grow above treeline. The northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows are found in the high elevations of northern Pakistan, Jammu and Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh. To the east, the western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows cover extensive areas along the Tibetan border with Uttarakhand and western Nepal. The eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows grow above the eastern and northeastern subalpine conifer forests, along the Tibetan border with eastern Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Arunachal Pradesh. The shrublands are composed of junipers as well as a wide variety of rhododendrons. They also possess a remarkable variety of wildflowers: Valley of Flowers National Park in the western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows contains hundreds of species. The upper limit of the grasslands increases from west to east, rising from 3,500 metres (11,500 ft) to 5,500 metres (18,000 ft). The grasslands are the summer habitat of the endangered snow leopard (Uncia uncia).

Meaning of Himalayas

Himalayas is a group of mountainous regions located in South Asia - Pakistan, India, Bhutan, Tibet, and Nepal. It dominates the list of highest mountains in the world! Himalayas includes the highest mountain Mt. Everest of Nepal (8850m / 29035ft). Himalaya of Nepal means, the Himalayan mountains located in this country. In sanskirt Himalayas means "abode of snow". Himalayas not only includes the snow-capped heavenly mountains but also the surrounding green and scenic valleys which lie in its path and on it's base, which people often forget. You will often hear the word Himal, which is a Nepali word, a short term popularly used for the snow-capped mountains or just for the word Himalaya. Himals are national assets of Nepal.
The Must Knows...
Nepal has more than 200 mountains over 6000 meter height
Himalayas of Nepal is known as the rooftop of the world. Because half of the highest mountains of the Himalayas are located in Nepal. Also the world's highest mountain (Mt. Everest) is also located in Nepal
Nepal is known as a Himalayan Country
Journey to Himalayas begins from Nepal, as Nepal is the central location of the Himalayas
Himalayas are regarded as the most beautiful part of the earth which is often accurately named as the Clouds of The Earth or as The Location Where The Earth Meets The Sky, which is more evident as we see the earth and Himalayas from the space above.
Himalayas is the King of Mountains. It has more tallest mountains than any other regions of the planet
Over a 1000 mountain expeditions takes places every year in Nepal, each expeditions carrying an average of 30 people, more than 80% of those expeditions are towards the Himalayas.

Rivers and Hydro-power Business in Nepal

Many of Nepal's rivers such as the Karnali, Seti, and Gandaki are fueled by the Himalayas. These rivers rush through 8848m altitude from sea level to 60m. Extreme elevation of the land helps these rivers fly! And they carry water to generate more than 90,000 mW of electricity. Currently Nepal produces less than 2% of it's capacity. So why hasn't anything been done to get closer to 98% of this open business ?Many small sized hydro power plants are being currently setup. Lack of infrastructure such as roads, government policy, war and conflict in the region has slowed down many projects.In Nepal, there are more plans than actions. There are plans to elevate poverty, such plans go through numbers like these.. Plan 1 to Plan 20. There are also plans to setup hydro-power projects to make nepal sufficient of electricity and also earn foreign revenue by selling it. Hydro power Plans have similar numbers like Plan 1 and Plan 2 and so on. They are as boring as the talks of political leaders. Everybody loves pointing their fingers at the other Government, and Every Government operates for about an year before it is replaced by another. When the new Government comes to office, they argue why plan-numbers were not long, so they add Plan 21 through Plan 9999 before saying good bye! In last 10 years alone, Nepal had more than 10 different governments, about one new government per year.In case you were interested, there are hydro-power plans for upto year 2030, by which they believe Nepal will produce enough electricity for the entire country as well as start making some money by selling it!Many small to medium sized, some privately owned hydropower plants are being setup in many part of the country, proving to all foreign investors that Nepal's rivers are good for business. Read about Nepal's War and how Nepal is unfolding, some argue is it really ?

Map of Rivers

Nepal - a rich country of water

Nepal's most possessed natural resource is water. A land-locked country it may be, but the country is blessed by snow-capped mountains which feed Nepal land. Rivers are not only for rafters but also for businessmen. More than 80% of Nepal's electricity is generated by rivers. Snow-capped Himalayas are the main sources of Nepali rivers. Nepal has altitude ranging from 60 meter to all the way upto 8848 meters (Mt everest), the highest altitude of the earth. Some of the fastest running rivers in the world are located here.

There are three major rivers in Nepal namely Kosi River, Gandaki River and Karnali River which lie across east to west running from north to south. Surroundings of most rivers are in their natural settings. Nepali rivers are paradise to River Rafters who just can't have enough of angry and mad rivers. Need we mention Himalayan Water? It's all here in this beautiful country. No matter how many rivers you have rafted here, there is always a river waiting to be explored.

What is a natural resource?

A natural resource is a material that comes from the Earth and in its raw or "natural" state is of value for one reason or another. A natural resource is not man made and is already on the Earth. Some examples of natural resources would be oil, timber, and water, as well as a variety of minerals, metals and ores like salt, coal, and metals like gold, iron, aluminum. Water in a high lake is a natural resource. Even living things and materials like grasslands, forests, herds of animals, flocks of birds, and schools of fish can be considered natural resources. And if you guessed that wind and sunlight are natural resources, you'd be correct.
If you want to go with the definition of the way the United States Geological Survey, go for it. The USGS suggests that our nation's natural resources include minerals, energy, land, water and living things (biota). Natural resources are the things that Earth provides us that we can use, but which must be managed to maintain their viability. A general divisor of the natural resources is into renewable and non-renewable forms. The term natural resources probably originated with E.F. Schumacher as he used it in his book Small is Beautiful, which came out in 1973.

Natural Resources Of Nepal

Such is the case of Nepal, a landlocked country located between China (north) and India (south, east, west). It has a population of 28,901,790 (July 2007 est.) and a total land area of 147,181 square kilometres. (1) While Nepal consists of unlimited natural resources such as water, timber, hydropower, and scenic beauty, it has an extremely fragile environment. It is often affected by severe flooding, landslides, anti famine and faces environmental problems such as deforestation because of an overuse of wood for fuel. These often have negative impacts on people in rural areas who depend highly on nature for their survival. It must be noted that the majority of people, especially those in the rural areas, depend on land and agriculture as an economic activity.
Practices based on religion and patriarchy inevitably play a role in maintaining social inequalities. The dominant religion is Hinduism which stratifies castes into four: the Brahmin as the highest, Kshatri, Vaisya, and Shudra or Dalit as the lowest/untouchables. Practices leading to gender inequality such as the unequal division of labour based on the patriarchal tradition puts women to work in domestic (reproductive) sphere and men to work in the public (productive) sphere. While women are engaged in completing household chores, bearing and rearing children, taking care of the elderly, providing water and food to family, men often work outside the home--mostly in skilled jobs and/or income generating activities.
Because patriarchal ideologies and religious laws prevail in Nepal, dimensions of identity such as gender, caste, and ethnicity create hegemonic privilege on the use of natural resources. This paper aims to draw attention to the hegemonic politics at the micro level pertaining to the access to natural resources from the women's perspective, and to come up with recommendations. The paper will present examples of how Nepalese rural women ensure their family's survival as they play a vital role in the provision of water and food.
जडिबुटी, ढुङ्गा-बालुवा, जलविद्युत्, खनिज पदार्थ, पर्यटकीय आकर्षण (हिमाल, राष्ट्रिय निकुञ्ज, ऐतिहासिक मठ-मन्दिर आदि) र कृषिजस्ता नेपालका प्राकृतिक स्रोत-साधनको जिल्लागत वितरणको अलग-अलग अवस्था कस्तो छ र कुन स्रोतमा कुन जिल्ला सम्पन्न र कुन जिल्ला विपन्न छ भन्ने विस्तृत विवरण हिमाल खबरपत्रिका का यसअघिका चार वटा अङ्क (१६ असार, १ साउन, १६ साउन र १ भदौ)मा प्रकाशित भइसकेको छ। यो अङ्कमा चाहिँ ती सबै प्राकृतिक स्रोतहरूबाट प्राप्त हुनसक्ने आम्दानी जोड्दा समग्रमा कुन जिल्ला बढी सम्पन्न र कुन जिल्ला विपन्न देखिन्छ भन्ने कुरालाई आँकडामा दर्शाउन खोजिएको छ।
प्राकृतिक स्रोतबाट हुने सम्भाव्य आम्दानीका आधारमा कुन जिल्ला वा जिल्लावासी कति धनी हुन्छन् भनेर केलाउनका लागि सम्बद्ध जिल्लाको क्षेत्रफल र जनसङ्ख्याबीचको सम्बन्ध पनि हेर्नुपर्ने हुन्छ। धेरै क्षेत्रफल भएका जिल्लाहरूमा क्रमशः डोल्पा (८,०८३ वर्ग किमी), हुम्ला (६,०५२ व. किमी), ताप्लेजुङ (३,६४६ व. किमी) र मुस्ताङ (३,५९८ व. किमी) आदि पर्छन् भने थोरै क्षेत्रफल भएका जिल्लामा भक्तपुर (१२३ व. किमी), ललितपुर (३९६ व. किमी) र काठमाडौं (४१४ व. किमी) आदि पर्दछन्। जनघनत्व र नेपालका जिल्लाको क्षेत्रफलबीचमा उल्टो सम्बन्ध रहने गरेको पाइन्छ। अर्थात् धेरै क्षेत्रफल भएका जिल्लाको जनघनत्व न्यून छ भने थोरै क्षेत्रफल भएका जिल्लाको जनघनत्व अत्यधिक छ। जम्माजम्मी ४१४ वर्ग किमी भू-भागमा फैलिएको काठमाडौँ जिल्लाको जनघनत्व २,६१३ छ भने हुम्लाको जनघनत्व जम्मा ७ मात्र छ। अर्को शब्दमा भन्दा, हुम्लाको १ वर्ग किमी क्षेत्रमा औसत ७ जना मानिसको बसोबास छ भने काठमाडौँमा त्यति नै क्षेफलमा २६१३ जना बस्दछन्। उच्च जनघनत्व भएका काठमाडौँपछिका अन्य जिल्लाहरूमा भक्तपुर (१,८३३ जना), ललितपुर (८५३ जना), महोत्तरी (५५३ जना) आदि पर्दछन्। त्यसैगरी डोल्पा, मनाङ र मुस्ताङ (४ जना), हुम्ला (७ जना), मुगु (१३ जना), रसुवा (३० जना), सोलुखुम्बु (३२ जना) आदि न्यून जनघनत्व भएका जिल्लामध्ये पर्दछन्।
नेपालको प्राकृतिक स्रोत-सम्पदा दोहनबाट हुने तालिका १ अनुसारको आम्दानीको हिसाब गर्दा निम्न पूर्वानुमानलाई आधार मानिएको छः-
• कुनै पनि प्राकृतिक स्रोतको दोहन वा उपयोग विवेकसम्मत र वैज्ञानिक ढङ्गबाट मात्र हुनेछ।
• खनिज पदार्थको दोहन/उपयोग दिगो ढङ्गबाट ५०० वर्षसम्म गर्न सकिने गरी गरिनेछ।
• वनजङ्गल र जडिबुटीको दोहन/उपयोग गर्दा वातावरणमा नकारात्मक प्रभाव पर्ने छैन र हाल भएको वनजङ्गलको क्षेत्रफल पनि घट्ने छैन।
• ढुङ्गा-बालुवा झ्िक्दा कुनै ठाउँमा उपलब्ध परिमाणमध्ये हरेक वर्ष १० भागको एक भाग मात्र उत्खनन् गरिनेछ भन्ने अनुमान गरिएको छ। यसो गर्दा ढुङ्गा-बालुवा उत्खनन् गर्दा प्रकृतिमा नकारात्मक प्रभाव (खोलाको गहिराई बढ्ने, पहिरो जाने, बाढी अनियन्त्रित भई विभिन्न क्षेत्रमा पस्ने आदि) वातावरणीय समस्या न्यून गर्न सकिन्छ भन्ने ठानिएको छ।
• पर्यटन क्षेत्रको सम्भाव्यता आकलन गर्दा विगत १५ वर्षमा त्यस क्षेत्रमा भएको सबभन्दा बढी आम्दानीलाई आधार बनाइएको छ। पर्यटन क्षेत्रमा हुनसक्ने सम्भावित विकास र आम्दानी यहाँ अनुमान गरिएभन्दा धेरै बढी पनि हुनसक्छ।
• विद्युत्को हकमा, नेपालमा सम्भव ठानिएको (८०,००० मे.वा. भन्दा बढी) सबै क्षमता उपयोग गर्न सकिने मानेर त्यसको आम्दानी हिसाब गरिएको छ।
• कृषिमा हालको उत्पादकत्व २४८ प्रतिशतसम्म बढेर भारतको हरियाणा र पञ्जाबको तहमा पुग्छ भन्ने आधारमा त्यसबाट हुने आम्दानीको हिसाब गरिएको छ।
अन्य प्राकृतिक साधनस्रोतको अनुपातमा नेपालको कृषि क्षेत्रको तुलनात्मक लाभ न्यून छ। हाम्रो कृषिले युरोप-अमेरिकाको कृषिसँग प्रतिस्पर्धा नै गर्न सक्दैन। त्यसैले नेपालको कृषि लगानी मूलतः देशको खाद्य आवश्यकता पूर्ति गर्न र ग्रामीण क्षेत्रमा रोजगारी उपलब्ध गराउनका लागि हुनुपर्छ।

हामीले सानैदेखि सुन्दै आइरहेका हौं, नेपाल कृषिप्रधान देश हो; त्यसैले नेपालको विकास कृषिको विकासबाट मात्र सम्भव छ। कतिपय अर्थमा यो कथन ठीकै पनि हो। यसअनुरुप हरेक वर्ष कृषिलाई प्राथमिकता दिएर बजेट विनियोजन गरिएको पनि पाइन्छ। तर, यो क्षेत्रबाट सोचेजति प्रतिफल भने प्राप्त भएको छैन। त्यसैले सधैँ प्रश्न उठ्ने गरेको छः कतै कृषि क्षेत्रको लगानीले अरू क्षेत्रको लगानीलाई कमजोर त तुल्याइरहेको छैन? विकासको मेरुदण्ड मानिएको कृषि विकास बारे यसरी प्रश्नचिन्ह लगाउँदा केही कृषि विशेषज्ञ र राजनीतिक व्यक्तिहरूको चित्त दुख्न पनि सक्छ। तर पनि यथार्थ के हो भने लगानी र प्राथमिकता दिइएअनुसार कृषि क्षेत्रले देशलाई लाभ दिनसकेको छैन।
कुनै पनि क्षेत्रको लगानी मुख्यतः दुईवटा आधारमा गरिन्छः पहिलो, सामाजिक दायित्व निर्वाह गर्न र दोस्रो; तुलनात्मक लाभ प्राप्त गर्ने उद्देश्यबाट। कृषिको लगानी सामान्यतः सामाजिक दायित्व निर्वाह गर्नका लागि हुने गर्दछ। मूलतः स्थानीय तहमा रहेको बेरोजगारी समस्या कम गर्न र खाद्यमा आत्मनिर्भर हुनको लागि कृषि क्षेत्रमा लगानी गरिन्छ। तर, तुलनात्मक लाभका दृष्टिले नेपालको कृषि क्षेत्र समग्र रूपमा भारत, डेनमार्क, जर्मनी, नेदरल्याण्ड, अमेरिका आदि देशसँग प्रतिस्पर्धा गर्ने क्षमता राख्दैन। अर्थात् ती देशसँग नेपालको कृषि क्षेत्रले प्रतिस्पर्धा गर्न सजिलो छैन। त्यसैले कृषिप्रतिको हाम्रो परम्परागत सोचमा नै परिवर्तन ल्याउनु जरुरी भइसकेको छ।
विकसित मात्र नभई दक्षिण एशियाकै अन्य मुलुकहरूको तुलनामा पनि नेपालको कृषि क्षेत्र उत्पादकत्व अत्यन्त न्यून हुनुका धेरै कारणहरूमध्ये सिंचाई सुविधा, उचित मलखाद, बाटोघाटो, उन्नत बीउविजन, कीटनाशक औषधि, उपयुक्त प्रविधि आदि कुराहरूको अभाव नै मुख्य रहेका छन्। हाम्रो कतिपय परम्परागत कृषिजन्य उत्पादनको बजारमा पर्याप्त माग नहुनु र उत्पादन लागत बढी हुनुले पनि उत्पादन न्यून भइरहेको छ। तर पनि यी समस्याहरू समाधान गर्न सकिएमा कृषि उत्पादनको सम्भाव्यता नेपालमा हुँदै नभएको भने होइन।
निरन्तरको अनिकाल र खाद्य सङ्कटबाट मुक्ति पाउन सन् १९६० दशकमा भारतले कृषि क्षेत्रको उत्पादकत्व बढाउन हरित क्रान्ति को नाममा एउटा नयाँ अभियान थाल्यो। त्यो अभियानले भारतका केही राज्यको कृषिलाई कायापलट गरिदियो। पञ्जाब र हरियाणा जस्ता राज्यमा यसको अत्यधिक सकारात्मक प्रभाव देखियो। प्रतिहेक्टर ३.५ मे.ट. अन्न उत्पादन गरिरहेका त्यहाँका कृषकले ८ मे.ट. सम्म उत्पादन गर्न थाले। तर भारतका अन्य कतिपय राज्यहरूमा अहिले पनि प्रतिहेक्टर उत्पादन करिब ४ मे.ट. मात्र छ।

डम्बरकृष्ण श्रेष्ठ
अध्ययनका आधार
यो अध्ययन कृषि क्षेत्रमा उपयुक्त रूपमा लगानी, भूमिसुधार, सिंचाई, मलखाद, बीउविजन, औषधिमूलो, बजार, सुरक्षालगायतका समस्याहरू समाधान भएको अवस्थामा यो क्षेत्रले के-कति उत्पादन दिनसक्छ र राज्यलाई त्यसबाट प्रत्यक्ष/अप्रत्यक्ष आम्दानी कति हुनसक्छ भन्नेबारेमा केन्द्रित छ। निम्न सूचना र अनुमानलाई अध्ययनको आधार बनाइएको छ।
१. यो अध्ययनमा नेपाल सरकारले तयार पारेको राष्ट्रिय नमूना कृषि गणना नेपाल, सन् २००१/०२ का तथ्याङ्कलाई लिइएको छ। यसपछि सरकारीस्तरमा कृषिको यति विस्तृत सर्वेक्षण अर्को भएको छैन।
२. आँकडा उपलब्ध भएका केही निश्चित जिल्लाको मुख्य बाली, नगदे बाली, तरकारी र फलफूल खेती तथा पशुपालनको उत्पादन दरलाई आधार मानी नेपाल लेवर एकेडेमीका कृषि विशेषज्ञ डा. शिव शर्मासहितको छलफलबाट निस्केको गुणक (कोफिसेन्ट)मार्फत हरेक जिल्लाको कृषि उपलब्धिको गणना गरिएको छ। फलफूल र तरकारी खेतीबाट तराईका जिल्लामा कृषि उत्पादनको करिब १५ प्रतिशत र हिमाली जिल्लामा करिब २० प्रतिशत थप आम्दानी भएको देखिन्छ। पशुपालनमा भने अवस्था ठीक उल्टो; अर्थात् पहाडी र हिमाली जिल्लाहरूमा २० प्रतिशत र तराईका जिल्लाहरूमा १५ प्रतिशत थप आम्दानी भएको देखिन्छ।
३. नेपालमा कृषियोग्य जग्गा २,६५,४०,३७१ हेक्टर रहेकोमा ६०.५२ प्रतिशत आंशिक या पूर्ण सिंचाई सुविधा प्राप्त र ३९.४८ प्रतिशतमा सिंचाई छैन भन्ने मानिएको छ।
४. नेपालको कृषियोग्य जग्गामध्ये करिब ९० प्रतिशतमा कुनै न कुनै रूपमा सिंचाई सुविधा पुर्‍याउन सकिन्छ भन्ने पनि मानिएको छ।
५. ९० प्रतिशत जमिनमा सिंचाई सुविधा र लगानी मल, बीउ, औषधि, बजार आदिको सही व्यवस्थापन हुनसकेको खण्डमा नेपालको कृषि क्षेत्र युरोप वा जापानको स्तरमा पुग्न नसके पनि भारतका पञ्जाब र हरियाणा राज्यको स्तरमा चाहिँ पुर्‍याउन सकिन्छ भन्ने अनुमान गरिएको छ।
६. पञ्जाब र हरियाणामा कृषि उत्पादकत्व प्रतिहेक्टर ८ मे.ट. रहेको छभने भारतकै पहाडी क्षेत्रको कृषि उत्पादकत्व प्रतिहेक्टर ४.५ मे.ट. र तीन बाली भित्र्याउने उत्पादकत्व क्षमताको सम्भाव्यतालाई नेपालको सन्दर्भमा गाँसेर हिसाब गरिएको छ। नेपालमा ०.५ हेक्टर भन्दा कम जमिन भएका किसानहरूको वार्षिक बाली भित्र्याउने क्षमता बढी देखिएको छ भने पाँच हेक्टरभन्दा बढी जग्गा भएकामा यो क्षमता निकै कम देखिएको छ।
७. घरमा त्यसै खेर गइरहेको ज्याला नआउने श्रमिकलाई कृषि क्षेत्रमा प्रयोग गरिएकोले सामान्यतः त्यसको हिसाब गर्ने गरिएको पाइँदैन। तर, उक्त पारिवारिक श्रमलाई ठीकसँग हिसाब गर्दा त्यसले उत्पादन लागतको करिब ८० प्रतिशत अंश 'गटेको पाइन्छ।
८. संसारका कुनै पनि देशमा कृषि उत्पादनमा प्रत्यक्ष कर लगाउने चलन रहेको पाइँदैन। विकासोन्मुख मुलुकहरू जति धेरै कृषिमा निर्भर भएका छन्, कुल गार्हस्थ उत्पादनमा कृषि क्षेत्रको त्यति नै धेरै हिस्सा रहेको पाइन्छ। उद्योग, कलकारखाना र सेवा क्षेत्रको विस्तार तथा प्रविधिको विकाससँगै कुल गार्हस्थ उत्पादनमा कृषि क्षेत्रको योगदान घट्दै जाने गरेको पाइन्छ। नेपालको कुल गार्हस्थ उत्पादनमा केही वर्ष अघिसम्म ५० प्रतिशतभन्दा माथि रहेको कृषि क्षेत्रको हिस्सेदारी हाल २५ प्रतिशतको हाराहारीमा झ्रेको छ। कृषि उत्पादनले राज्यलाई प्रत्यक्ष कर नदिए पनि यसका रुपहरू परिवर्तन हुँदा (जस्तै गहुँबाट पीठो/मैदा हुँदै बिस्कुट, रोटी बनाउँदा) या यो बजारमा अन्य सामानहरूसँग साटिँदा (अर्थात् किसानले अन्न बिक्री गरी सोबाट साबुन, तेल, कपडा आदिमा खर्च गर्दा) राज्यलाई कर प्राप्त हुने गर्छ। यसरी अप्रत्यक्ष रूपमा प्राप्त हुने करको पनि यहाँ हिसाब गरिएको छ। उत्पादनको ८० प्रतिशतलाई उत्पादन लागत र बाँकी रहेको २० प्रतिशत बजारमा वस्तु विनिमय (साट्न) को लागि उपलब्ध रहेको मानी हिसाब गरिएको छ।
९. उपलब्ध कृषि उत्पादनको २० प्रतिशतलाई १०० प्रतिशत मानी सोको १५ प्रतिशतलाई करका रूपमा राज्यले पाउने आम्दानी मानी हिसाब गरिएको छ।
१०. नेपालको सबै जिल्लाको कृषि उपजको आर्थिक विश्लेषणले हाल नेपालमा भइरहेको उत्पादन दरलाई २४८ प्रतिशतले बढाउन सकेमा मात्रै नेपालको कृषि क्षेत्रको उत्पादकत्व र उत्पादन भारतको पञ्जाब र हरियाणाको हाराहारीमा पुग्नसक्ने देखायो।
११. यो विश्लेषण हाम्रा विभिन्न जिल्लाहरूको उत्पादकत्व र भारतको पञ्जाब तथा हरियाणाको उत्पादकत्वलाई आधार मानी गरिएको छ। यसलाई योभन्दा कम या बढी बनाएर पनि हिसाब गर्न सकिन्छ।
१२. यो विश्लेषणका आधारमा कृषि क्षेत्रमा सबभन्दा बढी लाभ सर्लाही जिल्लामा देखिन्छ। त्यसैगरी कृषिबाट राज्यलाई हुने आम्दानी पनि यही जिल्लामा बढी हुनसक्छ। तुलनात्मक लाभका दृष्टिलेत्यसपछि क्रमशः धनुषा, सिरहा, सप्तरी, मोरङ, झ्ापाहुँदै अन्त्यमा डोल्पा, मुस्ताङ र मनाङ पर्दछन्। (हे. तालिका)
१३. कृषि क्षेत्रबाट सबै जिल्लाको उच्चतम सम्भाव्य कुल आम्दानी रु. ८.९ अरब हुन आउँछ।
१४. सन् २००८/०९ को नेपालको बजेटसँग तुलना गर्दा कृषि क्षेत्रले सरकारी राजस्वमा करिब ३.५ प्रतिशत मात्र करका रूपमा योगदान गरेको देखिन्छ।
यहाँ दिइएको तालिकाअनुसार जिल्लागत कृषि आय प्राप्त गर्न ठूलो लगानीको आवश्यकता पर्दछ। तर, त्यसरी गरिने लगानीको प्रतिफल साँच्चै नै तुलनात्मक फाइदाको आधारमा सही हुन्छ कि हुँदैन? त्यो लगानी अन्य तुलनात्मक फाइदा हुने क्षेत्रमा गर्दा बढी फाइदा हुनसक्छ कि? यी र यस्ता प्रश्नको जवाफ खोज्नुअघि तलका दुईवटा उदाहरण हेरौँ।

गोलभेंडाका कुरा!
नेपालको सबैभन्दा बढी गोलभेँडा हुने सर्लाहीको लालबन्दी क्षेत्रमा एक बोटमा वार्षिक १० देखि १२ केजी गोलभेंडा फल्दा हामी राम्रो फल्यो भनी खुसी हुन्छौँ। तर, पश्चिमी यूरोपका नेदरल्याण्ड, जर्मनी र वेल्जियम आदि देशमा एक बोट गोलभेँडामा ३०० देेखि ४०० केजी प्रतिवर्ष फल्छ। यसरी फल्ने गोलभेंडाको बोटका जरा माटोमा होइन, कृत्रिम रूपमा बनाइएको विशेष प्रकार (६138६138३ इन्च) को नरम छिद्रदार ढुङ्गा ९उयचगक कतयलभ० मा गाडिएका हुन्छन्। हरेक दिन टिपिने गोलभेँडाको तौललाई आधार बनाई सो बोटका जरामा जोडिएको पातलो पाइपबाट झ्ोल मल कम्प्युटरमार्फत आवश्यक मात्रामा सम्प्रेषित गर्ने गरिन्छ। यस किसिमको गोलभेँडाको बोटले बोझ् खप्न नसक्ने हुँदा यसलाई फलामे जालीको टेको लगाइएको हुन्छ। यस्ता बोटमध्ये कुनैले हरेक झ्ुप्पामा तीन वटा मात्र गोलभेँडा फलाउने गर्छन् भने कुनैले ५, कुनैले ७ या कुनैले स-साना ४० देखि ५० वटासम्म झ्ुप्पा फलाउन सक्छन्।
कति दूध दिने गाई दूधालु?
नेपालमा धेरैजसो गाईले बाच्छाबाच्छी पाएपछि एक वर्षसम्म दैनिक १ देखि २ लिटरसम्म दूध दिने गर्छन्। यदि कुनै गाईले दैनिक १० देखि १२ लिटर दूध दियो भने हामी त्यसलाई धेरै दुधालु गाई भन्ने गर्दछौँ। जबकि डेनमार्क, जर्मनी, नेदरल्याण्ड आदि पश्चिम युरोपका देशहरूमा वर्षैभरि दैनिक ८० देखि ९० लिटर र दूध दिइरहने गाईबाट मात्र लगानीको सही प्रतिफल आउँछ भन्ने मानिन्छ। त्यहाँ दैनिक ४०/५० लिटरभन्दा कम दूध दिने गाई दूधको प्रयोजनका निम्ति पालिँदैनन्।
हामीलाई यी उदाहरणहरू पत्याउन गाह्रो पर्न पनि सक्छ। तर यो वास्तविकता हो। त्यसो भए के अत्यधिक उत्पादन खर्च लाग्ने गरेको नेपालको कृषि क्षेत्रले भारत या पश्चिम युरोपसँग प्रतिस्पर्धा गरी देशको औद्योगिकीकरण या भौतिक पूर्वाधार विकासमा योगदान पुर्‍याउन सक्ने गरी आम्दानी गर्न सक्छ त? आज सोचिनुपर्ने मुख्य सवाल यही हो।
यसको अर्थ कृषि क्षेत्रलाई बेवास्ता गर्नुपर्छ भन्ने पनि होइन। यहाँ कृषि क्षेत्रमा गरिने लगानीको उद्देश्य स्पष्ट हुनुपर्छ मात्र भन्न खोजिएको हो। हाम्रो कृषि क्षेत्रको लगानी देशको खाद्य आवश्यकता पूर्ति र ग्रामीण क्षेत्रमा भएका ज्याला नपाउने श्रमिकहरूलाई सम्बोधन गर्ने अर्थात् तिनलाई रोजगारी उपलब्ध गराइरहने उद्देश्यद्वारा प्रेरित हुनुपर्दछ। हाम्रा लागि तुलनात्मक लाभका दृष्टिले अत्यन्त आकर्षक क्षेत्रका रूपमा पर्यटन, जलस्रोत आदि छँदैछन्।